The medieval boundaries of France and Germany are established by the Treaty of Mersen. This treaty partitions the middle kingdom of Lotharingia, giving half to the West Frankish king, Charles the Bald, half to the East Frankish king, Louis the German.
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1100 The Medieval Commune
A new form of government is emerging in the towns of medieval Europe. The so-called communes are self-governing towns, with their own legal systems, and the right to collect their own taxes and regulate trade. Citizens of these communes enjoy a higher degree of personal liberty than in the feudal communities that prevail elsewhere in the continent. In England, France and the Low Countries, communes are recognized as free cities in charters granted by the king, or by the local count. In Italy, communes are sworn associations of townsmen who have united to overthrow a feudal lord or a dictatorial bishop. At first, the Italian communes are governed by consuls elected by the town's richer citizens. These communes grow more democratic over the years, but peasants and laborers will be excluded from political participation for centuries to come.
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1100 Cistercian Contributions
The Cistercians, a monastic order, contributes greatly to the development of secular English society as well as religious life. They build their monasteries in secluded areas around which they cultivate the land and raise flocks of sheep. The sheep thrive and soon England becomes the major supplier of good quality wool to the Lowlands and Italy. The wool trade is taxed, providing the backbone revenue of the medieval English economy.
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1300 Rebirth of Banking
Although banking had been known in Babylon and the Roman Empire, it vanished from medieval Europe because the Catholic Church condemned usury, the lending of money with an interest charge for its use. The expansion of trade during the Crusades has created a demand for credit and Italian merchants finally overcome their religious scruples. In time, the Church will redefine usury as the lending of money at an excessive rate of interest.
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1455 The Printing Press
With his movable type printing press, Johannes Gansfleisch zur laden zum Gutenberg of Mainz completes his masterpiece: a version of the Latin bible. Gutenberg's first product was a printed poem. With the 1282 page Mazarin Bible, the inventor seeks to mechanically reproduce the medieval liturgical manuscripts without compromising their color or design, but the effort to produce it bankrupts him.
His backer is a goldsmith and financier named Johann Fust; his assistant is Peter Schoeffer. Ironically, both testify against him in the trial which results in Gutenberg losing control of his printing establishment this same year. Fust has brought suit against Gutenberg to recover funds, being impatient for a quick return on his investment.
Gutenberg's aim is to make movable type that will not wear down, will be uniform in size, and will produce an even line of print. The interchangeability of letters lies at the heart of the new invention. Gutenberg is more responsible than anyone else for the adoption of movable type in the West.
The introduction of printing changes human civilization forever, making it possible to print large runs of books and magazines at a low cost. Information may be transmitted without personal contact or resort to memory. This creates an immediate emphasis on literacy in all classes, and leads quickly to the establishment of universities, and specialized fields of knowledge.
The ramifications of this invention are even more widespread. The spread of literacy imposes an increased demand for eyeglasses. The resulting improvements in lens grinding techniques lead to the invention of the telescope and microscope. Mass communication will eventually lead to modern advertising, which has a revolutionary effect on market economies.
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1589 "Paris Is Worth A Mass"
Henry IV assumes the French throne. A Protestant, he converts to Catholicism to appease the Catholic majority and prevent sectarian violence. "Paris is worth a mass," he says. Henry's Bourbon dynasty replaces the House of Valois; both families trace their claim to the medieval king Hugh Capet.
